Climate Change And Its Effects On Economic Growth Essay

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1 Background †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 1.4 Climate change adaptation and mitigation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 1.7 Problem Statement †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..... 11 1.8 Objectives of the study †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 13 1.9 Research questions †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 14 1.10 Significance of the study †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 14 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 2.0 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦.. 16 2.1 Conceptual Framework †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 2.2 Empirical Literature †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 22 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 3.0 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 3.3 Model Specification †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 26 3.4 Data Analysis and Techniques †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 26 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 28 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The evidence of climate change in Kenya is undeniable, while its effects on economic growth are no more mysterious; rather, they are rapidly unfolding to a startling reality and concern for humanity. 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Analysis Of The Film The Wild Country - 1607 Words

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Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market Free Essays

string(88) " categorisation of them as dependent and deviant carries an implicit moral judgment’\." LUBS3001 Gender and Equality at Work in Comparative Perspective Ethnic disadvantage has not disappeared from the labour market despite legislation. What theoretical explanations have been put forward to explain why people from ethnic and racial minorities experience discrimination? Which do you consider to be the most helpful in explaining disadvantage in the labour market? Ethnic and racial discrimination in the workplace is a controversial topic, which has been researched and assessed thoroughly over the past years. Although the terms ‘ethnicity’ and ‘race’ are often talked about in union, they have different meanings and stem from different social contexts. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market or any similar topic only for you Order Now Race is an ideology with a particular concept in mind, and can be understood in various social and historical contexts, for example when slavery was prevalent and race was an important factor for distinguishing groups in society. Race can also refer to particular physical features someone may have, for example someone’s skin colour. Ethnicity on the other hand, relates more to groups of people who share significant, common beliefs that are part of their embedded culture, and usually passed down through their heritage. Race and ethnicity are key issues in the workplace because evidence shows that when analysing different measures of achievement in the workplace, such as unemployment rates, earnings and progression into higher levels of work, ethnic minorities are disadvantaged (Cabinet Office), and although the magnitude of these disadvantages are generally decreasing over time, it is still an un-resolved issue affecting millions of people every year. Although many theoretical explanations have been proposed regarding this ‘glass ceiling’ theory (The economist, 2009) in the workplace, it is important to recognise that many of these theories are linked, and therefore there is no one prevailing answer to resolve the issue. During this essay I will discuss the Underclass theories, with reference to Murray (1989) and Wilson, (1987) theories of discrimination and racism focusing on Macpherson’s concept of institutional racism (1999), and theories of ethnic diversity in relation to human and social capital, concluding with which theories I deem to be the most explanatory in reference to this topic. Evidence of ethnic disadvantage in the labour market is plentiful, with statistics covering multiple areas of the subject. In the TUC report of Youth, Unemployment and Ethnicity (2012) it shows that the unemployment rate for White people (male and females) is 20%, for Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi the figure increases to 29%, and for Black/African Caribbean the figure is more than twice than that for Whites, at 45%. However, when analysing this research it is important to recognise that these employment rates may be particularly high due to the economic recession around this time affecting the labour market, but the variation in figures amongst the groups is still apparent. Similarly, this research cannot be fully analysed as different ethnic groups have been grouped together, and between these ethnicities there are substantial variations with regards to employment. An example of this arises from statistics from the Labour Force Survey (1999), which show that the unemployment rate for Indians is closer to that of Whites than it is to Bangladeshis. In the Cabinet Office report of Ethnic minorities in the Labour market (2003), information states that ‘while ethnic minorities are disadvantaged on average, the labour market successes of the Indians and Chinese show that the old picture of White success and ethnic minority under-performance is now out of date’. Although this is extremely positive progress for Indians and Chinese, there is still much more to be done to further bridge the gap between other ethnic groups in the labour market. Statistics from the Labour Force Survey (1999) show White people had an unemployment rate of just 6%, Indians 8%, Pakistanis 16%, Black Africans 17%, and Bangladeshis 24%. It is evident that Bangladeshis have the highest rate of unemployment out of these ethnic groups, and one reason for this could be due to an English language barrier. If Bangladeshi parents are not fluent in English, then not only will it be considerably harder for them to find a job, but also this disadvantage will be passed down to their children when they attend school, therefore this particular weakness is transmitted over generations, and may be one explanation for the on-going trend of high unemployment levels. Statistics also show that different ethnic groups are more susceptible to be employed in particular areas of work. Rex and Tomlinson (1979) found that in Birmingham, ‘immigrants and employed predominantly in less attractive industries and in less rewarding jobs’, (Pilkington, 2003, p61) and evidence for this can be found in the National report by Green, Owen and Wilson (2005). Research from this report shows that in the UK on average, around 8% of all jobs are filled by ethnic minority employees, yet there are various different structural positions in the labour market. Ethnic minorities are under-represented in occupations such as managers and administration, with only 12. 7% occupying these types of jobs, compared to 15. 5% for Whites. Furthermore, ethnic minorities are over-represented in occupations such as sales, at a figure of 10. 5%, compared to 7. 4% for whites. As previously mentioned, one of the main reasons employees from ethnic minorities may work in lower skilled jobs could be due to insufficient language skills. In the National report it states that in London, where 28. 8% of the population are from ethnic minorities (Ethnic minorities, Information Centre Guide 2003), there are opportunities for people to learn English via English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) provisions, however local studies in the area show this opportunity needs to be made even more accessible and on a wider scale for a positive impact to be made (Africa Educational Trust 2002). The Underclass thesis was first developed in the United States and later gained awareness in Britain due to an American journalist, Auletta in 1982. Auletta claimed that the underclass had ‘four distinct categories’, these comprising of the ‘passive poor’, ‘hostile street criminals’, ‘hustlers’ and ‘the traumatised drunks†¦and released mental patients’ (Pilkington, 2003, p52). Morris (1994) stated ‘Auletta’s categorisation of them as dependent and deviant carries an implicit moral judgment’. You read "Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market" in category "Essay examples" Although there are various definitions of the underclass, the majority of them share similar characteristics, these being unemployed by choice, dependent on welfare benefits, social exclusion, and links to crime and delinquency. It could be seen that by labelling such a diverse group as ‘the underclass’, whilst assuming they all possess these negative qualities would ultimately be extremely de-motivating, and may even result in a self-fulfilling prophecy (David Straker 2002-2012) If so, this may result in members of the underclass feeling hard work is not expected of them, resulting in little or o effort to strive for employment and integrate with society. The concept of the underclass is linked to social divisions based on gender and class, as well as race, making it a widespread topic with significance to various groups in society. Therefore, the explanations put forward for this thesis are fundamentally opposing. Conservative writers of the underclass place specific e mphasis on cultural factors, such as the surrounding environment a person has grown up in, resulting in deviant values and behaviour. On the other hand, liberal writers maintain that structural factors such as the way our society functions, result in an underclass forming due to insufficient opportunities and on-going racism. Two of the most influential accounts of the underclass that have been provided derive from Charles Murray (1984) and Wilson (1987). Murray believed a Black underclass developed in the late 1960s due to the ‘culture of the ghetto’. He claimed this shared culture amongst the Black community created lack of education and stunted employment opportunities. Evidence of this theory can be seen in the U. S. National Canter for Health Statistics (1970s), whereby statistics report more than 50% of black babies were conceived out of wedlock, an increase of more than 33% in the 1950s (The Atlantic, 1986). Murray states that these changes took place during economic expansion; therefore the reasoning for these statistics is the existence and availability of welfare benefits. Murray believed that whilst state benefits were available, there was no incentive for women to go to work, meaning when they had children these values of state dependency would be passed on and it would become the norm to be unemployed. One example of a state benefit for women was Aid to Families with Dependent Children (Social Welfare History, 1988) which provided single mothers with financial security, acting as a disincentive for both mothers and fathers, as it took away the pressure of having to provide for the family. Murray said ‘because poor, uneducated single teenaged mothers are in a bad position to raise children’ poverty and deviant values are transferred from parents to children, with the end result being a general lack of motivation and contribution to the labour force (Murray 1984). There has been considerable amount of criticism for Murray’s theory and it was generally rejected by most sociologists. One critic of the theory is Devine (1997) who argued ‘the value of AFDC benefits declined in the 1970s while the number of single parents were growing’. This would suggest there is a further underlying issue, other than welfare benefits, for the explanation of growth of unemployed single parent mothers. Morris (1994) also disputed that ‘young employed are one group in American society who have no claim to state support as of right’. Again, this would suggest that dependency on state benefits is not the main cause for unemployment amongst young people. Wilson criticised Murray’s theory by saying it ignored racial discrimination and did not account for deindustrialising, whereby there was a change from a goods-producing economy to a service-producing economy meaning people who did not possess the required skills were out of work. Wilson went on to provide a structural theory of the underclass, this being the major liberal response to Murray’s explanation. Although Wilson also acknowledged an urban underclass and agreed that their ‘behaviour contrasts sharply with that of mainstream America’ (Wilson 1987), he argued that it was because of the unfair structures of society and existing inequalities that caused lack of education and unemployment. Wilson also acknowledged that unemployment was linked to discrimination and stemmed as a result of economic changes. Racial discrimination in the rural South encouraged migration to inner cities in the North, however the situation was not aided as service work replaced the manufacturing industry, requiring skills that the majority of Black and Hispanic citizens had not acquired. Townsend (1991) agrees with Wilson’s structural theory, and concluded from his major study, Poverty in the UK (1979) that the underclass emerged due to government policies in the areas of trade unions, industry and taxation. Therefore it was due to the way that society was structured and designed which caused an underclass of unemployed, low-paid or prematurely retired workers. Although sociologists deemed Wilson’s theory as more credible that Murray’s, there is still substantial criticism on the matter. Fainstein (1992) argues that Wilson fails to recognise ‘the continuing significance of race’ which, for Black people, causes ‘segmentation into low wage employment’ (Pilkington, 2003, p55). Furthermore, Miles (1982) criticises both theories by stating that migrants have not developed a whole underclass they are just simply a ‘fraction’ of society (Sociology Central 2010). It would appear than in general the underclass theory is not the most valid explanation for inequality in the labour force as there is a lack of empirical evidence with regard to the cultural theory, and both the cultural and structural theories generalise all members of ethnic groups together, when in fact statistics vary hugely amongst individuals within these groups. Another major theory used to explain the position of ethnic minorities in the workforce is ‘institutional racism’, also referring to direct and indirect discrimination. Institutional discrimination is defined by Macpherson (1999) as ‘the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin’ (Pilkington, 2003, p85). Macpherson launched a police investigation into the murder of a Black teenager by five White youths, and through this inquiry concluded that all major British organisations are characterised by some form of institutional racism (Parliament UK, 2009). For Macpherson, this concept did not mean that all policies of institutions were intentionally racist; rather it arises through ‘social and cultural processes’ (Parekh 2000). The fact that institutional racism is said to stem from the occupational culture of the organisation is a major concern, as the culture of a company is usually embedded within the employees who share similar values and beliefs, and they tend to remain consistent over time. Although the Macpherson report has created new awareness regarding institutional racism (Solomas 1999), and remains to be a valid explanation for ethnic minority disadvantage in the labour market, it has also been critiqued for various reasons. One of the main critiques is that the concept is too ambiguous, with Pilkington (2001) referring to it as a ‘blunderbuss concept’. This is because the concept does not specifically refer to the different components within institutional racism. The term ‘institutional racism’ is rather broad, as it may contain elements of individual discriminatory behaviour and also direct intentional discrimination. Regardless of anti-discrimination legislation, for example The Race Relations Act (1965) intentional discrimination can still be found in some areas of the present labour force. Evidence of this type of discrimination can be seen through discrimination testing, whereby testers from different ethnic backgrounds both apply for the same job at the same time, using identical application forms. A study performed by Modood et al (1997) found one in five ethnic minority employees felt they had experienced racial discrimination, in the form of being refused a job due to racial or religious reasons, yet only one in twenty white employees felt they had every experienced any form of discrimination. This evidence may suggest that employees who have been faced with discrimination could be discouraged from future job opportunities. Ethnic minority groups may also be faced with indirect discrimination, whereby an organisation unintentionally discriminates against certain groups, for example an up-market clothing store may only employ people who fit certain appearance criteria. Combined, these various forms of discrimination in the labour force would be extremely detrimental to ethnic minority groups and appear to be one of the major contributors to patterns of employment amongst ethnic groups. Ethnic diversity and patterns of discrimination amongst ethnic minority groups can also, to an extent, be explained by patterns of inequality. Social capital can be seen as an important aspect of society, which may provide some explanation for the diversity amongst ethnic groups. Putnam (1995) defines social capital as ‘features of social life –networks, norms, and trust that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives’. Social policy is linked to all members of a community and the social networks, and social norms or values within our society. The fact that social policy is composed of shared customs within a society, would suggest that members of minority ethnic groups may not be part of this concept, as they are likely to have different values as their cultures and backgrounds will vary. This could result in ethnic minority groups feeling segregated from the local community, especially if they have not lived there for very long, and therefore have not yet integrated with neighbours or fellow citizens. The terms ‘social capital’ and more specifically, ‘bonding social capital’, are significant when discussing the labour force as they refer to networking with people and communicating through shared objectives. Nowadays, with high levels of competitiveness in the work force, it is extremely advantageous to have general networking links into different areas of the labour market, and often the phrase ‘It’s not what you know, but who you know’ is used. Employers will often create a workforce of people that they can trust, or at least someone who has come with a trust-worthy reference, perhaps suggested by a colleague. Therefore, if ethnic minority members do not share this same sense of social capital and appear to have few or no network connections, it will be harder for them to succeed in the labour force and ultimately could it have a significant effect on their employment status. This theory of social capital can also be linked to why less ethnic minority graduates are taken on by large firms after university, than Whites. Statistics provided by the Higher Education Statistics Agency from 2007-08 showed 66% of Whites found full-time or part-time employment within one year of graduation compared to 56. % for minority ethnic groups. Although the figure is not alarmingly higher, one reason for the difference could be due to social capital and networking advantages. Work experience completed throughout university years can often be acquired using contacts, and the majority of employees will consider the quality and amount of work experience endured before employing a graduate. Although this essay is primarily focused on ethnicity, it is also important to consider religion as a contributory factor for patterns of inequality in the labour force. Religion can often be a trigger for discriminatory behaviour, for example since the 9/11 terrorist attacks the term ‘Islamophobia’ was used more widely, this referring to fear of Muslims. Many types of religion are expressed using distinctive types of clothing, such as a turban, making it apparent to others what religion someone may be, which could lead to discrimination. Lindley (2002) compared employment and earnings across ethnic groups within five religious groups, and compared these results with that of Whites. Evidence was provided to show Muslims were substantially disadvantaged compared to other ethnic minorities, however other factors such as individual attitudes and levels of motivation may have also contributed to these statistics. Religion can also be linked to the previously mentioned topic of social capital, as members of a particular faith may choose to socialise only with people who share their same beliefs and values, which would affectively limit opportunities of bridging social capital in mainstream society. To conclude, with the aid of various legislation and trade unions, the positioning of ethnic minorities in the labour market has advanced over the past forty years. However, regardless of this improvement, discrimination in the workforce and ethnic penalties are still prominent. From examining theoretical explanations for the disadvantage of ethnic minorities in the labour force, it would seem that the answer lies within a number of different causes. Although some of the theories seem more plausible explanations than others, for example theories that recognise racial disadvantage along with the concept of ethnic diversity are more accepted than that of the underclass thesis, it is still important to acknowledge all of the theories, as individually they all provide possible explanations. There is not one possible reason for ethnic and racial disadvantage, more than it is due to a combination of factors such as discrimination in the workplace, economic restructuring overtime, and race, religion and ethnicity. Further aspects are also relevant to consider, such as historic patterns of migration and also class and gender. Various elements of these theories will be more applicable depending on the group in question, and it is also essential to recognise that within different ethnic groups, statistics vary considerably making it un-reliable to treat groups as one whole instead of addressing the individuals within. Bibliography Books BRADLEY, H. , HEALY, G. , FORSON, C and KAUL, P. 2007 Equal Opportunities Commission. Manchester. BRADLEY, H. , HEALY, G. , 2008 Ethnicity and Gender at Work. Inequalities, Careers and Employment Relations London: Palgrave Macmillan CHEUNG, S. Y, HEATH, A and SMITH, S. N, 2007 Unequal Chances: Ethnic Minorities in Western Labour Markets. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford: Oxford University Press CLARK, K. and DRINKWATER, S 2007 Ethnic minorities in the labour market: dynamics and diversity York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. HOLDAWAY, S. and O’NEIL, M. (2007) ‘Where has all the racism gone? Views of racism in constabularies after Macpherson’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30, 3: 397-415. PILKINGTON, A. 003 Racial Disadvantage and Ethnic Diversity in Britain. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan SHAH, P. , 2011 ‘Ethnic and religious diversity in Britain. Where are we going? ‘ in HEALY, G, KIRTON, G. , and NOON, M Equality, Inequalities and Diversity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan TOWNSEND, P, 1979 Poverty in the United Kingdom. Great Britain: University of California. Websites CABINET OFFICE. 2009. Ethnic mi norities and the Labour market Final report [online]. [Accessed 26 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. irr. org. uk/pdf/em_labour_market. pdf GORDAN, L. 1998. Aid to dependant children, the Legal history [online]. [Accessed 21 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. socialwelfarehistory. com/programs/aid-to-dependent-children-the-legal-history/ GREEN, A. OWEN, D. WILSON, R. 2005. Changing patterns of employment by ethnic groups and for migrant workers [online]. [Accessed 27 October 2012]. Available from: https://docs. google. com/viewer? a=vq=cache:KVKNA4lMHX4J:dera. ioe. ac. uk/6250/1/nat-changingpatternsofemploymenttechnicalreport-re-may2006. pdf+national+report+green+owen+wilsonhl=enpid=blsrcid=ADGEES HIGHER EDUCATION STATISICS AGENCY. 1993. [online]. ]Accessed 29 October 2012]. 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Available from: https://docs. google. com/viewer? a=vq=cache:zWnhexhVW8cJ:www. ons. gov. uk/ons/rel/lms/labour-market-tren ds–discontinued-/volume-110–no–12/the-new-ethnicity-classification-in-the-labour-force-survey. pd STAKER, D. 2002-2012. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy [online]. [Accessed 26 October 2012]. Available from: http://changingminds. org/explanations/theories/self-fulfilling_prophecy. htm THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES. [online]. [Accessed 21 October 2012]. Available from: www. legislation. gov. uk/ukpga/1976/74 TUC report. 2012. Youth, unemployment and ethnicity [online]. [Accessed 28 October 2012]. Available from: www. tuc. org. uk/economy/index. cfm? mins=364 WALL STREET JOURNAL. 1986. The Economist [online]. [Accessed 27 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. economist. com/node/13604240 Word count – 3201 How to cite Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market, Essay examples

Project Management Control Techniques

Question: The IT department could not remove the old computers because there was no place to store them. Analyze the critical success factors, and state their conclusion and the lessons learned. Answer: Purpose of the Closure Report This report is purposely presented to make sure about the success of project with the highlighted successful measures that can be presented in future project for betterment. In addition to this, this report is also highlighting all open issues identified to be resolved with proper matter of concern (Boud et al., 2014). This closure project is mainly focusing on three issues that are found during the project was being operated by the project members. This report is elaborating these issues and providing under lessons learned section of the report. Goals of Project Report Following are the goals of the project: To review and validate the success and milestone of the project To confirm the risks, issues and recommendation To form the outline of the project activities and task necessary for the project to be closed (Burke, 2013) To identify the highlights of project and best practices needed for future project To validate the measures taken for the success of project To ensure the resolution techniques of issues highlighted in during project Report summary of the closure project Background of the Project The project is mainly based on management of employees and improvisation of IT department. These two aspects are generally covered during the total project. The project is concerned with risk assessment resolving those by taking proper measures. Among all the success factors three issues identified during the project management (Chia, 2013). In this closure report these issues are highlighted to be solved with the help of concerned view point of employees and authority. In addition to this, the successful aspects are being carried out by this project for next project management as an appropriate example of success. Best practices Utilization of IT risk assessment techniques Utilizations of detailed work definition document Feedback assessment synopsis of the closure One project can be closed for two reasons: a) all of the project objectives are met or b) there is change in the plan. In case of concerned project all the objectives of the project is met and concerned results are positive with respect to the deliverables set for the project (Leach, 2014). Therefore, the closure is obvious in concerned last step. Project performance Object performance According to project assessment it is found that the project has successfully met all the decided measures. Milestone of performance According to the surveys done, all the deliverables were met with high customer satisfaction (Schwalbe, 2015). In addition to this, surveys done for knowing the results of this project shows that the response of the members were indicating the success of project. Project Closure tasks Resource management During the resource management IT sources and some sort of general project resources had been changed for betterment of the project (Walker, 2015). These resources are shifted to be further used in the upcoming next projects. Issues management Three issues are identified during the project: a) all the 100 computers were not licensed for running new software, b) change were resisted by staffs and they were not willing to do training and c) IT department were unable remove the old computers as there were lack of space to store the old one. Risk management Mitigated risks: chances of increasing conflicts within project and communication barrier problem among members are reduced (Boud et al., 2014). Outstanding risks: Stopped growth of IT department and resistances to change management are the risks that are outstanding. Lessons learned Well performed tasks: Conflict resolution and resolving of communication barrier were two well performed tasks among all mitigated issues (Burke, 2013). Poorly performed tasks: IT risk assessment and management was the poorly performed tasks and it requires proper mitigation techniques. Post project tasks There are mainly three issues that are not mitigated properly: a) all the 100 computers were not licensed for running new software, b) change were resisted by staffs and they were not willing to do training and c) IT department were unable remove the old computers as there were lack of space to store the old one (Chia, 2013). It is the responsibility of the project head to mitigate these issues properly, but due to lack of care these issues were not mitigated properly. Therefore, proper steps should be taken for these issues. Closure recommendation of the project These recommendations provides following mitigating techniques for addressing the success and closure of the project: IT risks assessment: The techniques will help the project head to mitigate the problems of IT department (Leach, 2014). Change management: This technique will help the project head to resolve conflicting situation among employees. References Boud, D., Cohen, R., Sampson, J. (Eds.). (2014).Peer learning in higher education: Learning from and with each other. Routledge. Burke, R. (2013). Project management: planning and control techniques.New Jersey, USA. Chia, R. (2013). Paradigms and perspectives in organizational project management research: implications for knowledge creation.Novel Approaches to Organizational Project Management Research: Translational and Transformational. Copenhagen Business School Press, Copenhagen, 33-55. Leach, L. P. (2014).Critical chain project management. Artech House. Schwalbe, K. (2015).Information technology project management. Cengage Learning. Walker, A. (2015).Project management in construction. John Wiley Sons.